Книга посвящена жизнеописанию и научной биографии В.Ф. Лугинина. Недавние находки в русских и зарубежных архивах (общее число использованных архивохранилищ превышает 20) добавили много нового к уже известному образу Лугинина — крупного ученого, мецената, основателя кооперативного движения в России.

Новые документы свидетельствуют о широком участии В.Ф. Лугинина, его брата и отца в подготовке и проведении крестьянской реформы в России, в земском строительстве близкого им Ветлужского края. В хронологической последовательности, с учетом анализа архивных источников, показаны заслуги героя книги в развитии кооперативного движения на родине — в создании первого в России ссудо-сберегательного товарищества, в распространении его опыта по всей стране в рамках деятельности Комитета о сельских ссудо-сберегательных и промышленных товариществах и его С.-Петербургского отделения. В научной и педагогической деятельности Лугинина подробно проанализированы ее направления, мотивы и смена приоритетов, показана посредническая роль героя в сближении русской и западноевропейской науки и культуры. Впервые Лугинин представлен в близком семейном и родственном окружении, во взаимодействии с многочисленными русскими и иностранными коллегами, друзьями, учениками.

Многообразная деятельность Лугинина, надеемся, расширит круг потенциальных читателей его биографии. В ней найдут интересный для себя материал гражданские историки и историки науки, экономисты, социологи, кооператоры, учителя школ и преподаватели высших учебных заведений в области естественных наук, химики, работники библиотек и музеев.

Ключевые слова: кооперация, земство, Московский университет, термохимия.

Содержание

Zaitseva (Baum) E.A., Lubina G.I.
Vladimir Fedorovich Luginin. 1834-1911.
Moscow: Moscow University Press, 2012-688 P.

The Book in Brief

Vladimir Fedorovich Luginin (also spelled Louguinine in the francophone literature) is a renowned physical chemist, founder of the Russian school of thermochemistry. The public activities of Luginin who, together with his brother Svyatoslav, founded the Rozhdestvensky Loan and Savings Partnership - the first of its kind in Russia - in 1864-1866, evoked a wide response in his native country. Luginin is also well-known as a caring patron of the Russian science as evidenced by his generous gifts to the Moscow University and the Russian Physical-chemical Society in Petersburg. This only was enough for him to be seared in the memory of grateful descendants. And these are only some of services rendered by Luginin to his country. 

Luginin began to be written about immediately after his death. The memoirs about Luginin appeared, the materials in the biographical and reference literature, as well as in the generalising works and reviews on the history of chemistry. As a result, the first short biography of Luginin was published in 1963[1]. The authors provided the whole picture of the scientist's life, and undertook the analysis of both his scientific activities and his work associated with the cooperative society. However, due to its shortness and weakness of its source base, an unspoken ban on the coverage of certain events of the past, and the fact that many aspects of human personality in this past was overlooked, Luginin's biography was incomplete. It did not include his genealogy, did not cover his efforts related to the Zemstvo (the local district council), his attitude to the constitutionalist movement, and his role as an entrepreneur. Even his generous patronage lost its fundamental importance without a focus on its long-term objectives. These gaps are particularly evident in the context of accomplishments in the development of social history in Russia achieved over the last two decades. 

The authors of the present work have set for themselves a task to most fully reconstruct Luginin's biography and works, based on as many primary sources as possible. A thorough search was conducted in the archives of Moscow, St. Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Amsterdam, and Paris, where, in the absence of Luginin's personal funds in the Russian archives (his own archive was lost in the fire in Vetluga that occurred back in the Soviet time), we have found numerous documents unknown to, or hardly mentioned by, the previous researchers.

Materials written in Luginin's own hand are very few: these include his letters to his disciple and follower I.A. Kablukov in the archive of the Moscow Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (ARAN), and to a Russian woman writer E.V. Salias de Tournemir known under the alias of Evgeniya Tour, stored in the Russian State Archive of Literature and Arts (RGALI). D.I. Mendeleyev's Scientific Archive in St. Petersburg State University hosts the great scientist's correspondence with Luginin that had been partially used by the latter's previous biographers.    

On the other hand, there are many indirect sources related to Luginin's biography. Such evidences can be found in the papers of the 3^rd Division of the Police Department, stored in the State Archive of the Russian Federation (GARF). The journals of his father Fedor Nikolayevich Luginin may be found in the Russian State Historical Archive (RGIA) in Petersburg while the so-called "formulary lists" of Vladimir Fedorovich himself, his father and his brother, concerned with their military service, are available in the Russian State Military History Archive (RGVIA) in Moscow. The formulary lists concerned with Luginin's work in Moscow University as well as the Moscow Assembly of Nobility's genealogical tables can be found in the Central Historical Archive of Moscow (TsIAM). In this work we have used for the first time the materials from the archives of Moscow University and its Scientific Library, and from the local history museums in Vetluga and Sharia (Kostroma Region), as well as the collections of documents from the Russian State Library's Department of Manuscripts. This is a far from the exhaustive list of documents containing the valuable and - in most cases - new materials for Luginin's biography.

The most significant findings, however, were made in the foreign archives. It is well known that, upon the doctors' insistence, Luginin left Russia for good in 1907 and lived alternating between Paris and Switzerland (on his estates La Pelouse and Grand Chên and in Montreux). His wife who was French remained in France after his death in 1911. His daughter, Princess Maria Volkonsky, had also moved to France together with her family immediately after the 1917 revolution. Thus, a part of his personal archive was moved abroad.

A manuscript of Luginin's Memoirs was found at the International Institute of Social History (IISH) in Amsterdam in the Archive of the Association pour la Conservation des Valeurs Culturelles Russes. This manuscript was stored there, unclaimed, for over 50 years. These Memoirs reflect the author's personal history in the context of historical events of the last third of the 19^th - early 20^th century. They provide an inexhaustible source of biographic information about the author, his value preferences regarding the social and scientific practices, and reflect his ideological evolution from his fascination with certain socialist ideas in his youth to a position of a liberal conservative and constitutionalist, advocating a gradual transformation of society with the preservation of positive achievements of the past, in his mature years.

Luginin has been always seen as a scientist deeply integrated in the Western European scientific community as evidenced by his scientific papers most of which were published in the French and later, in the Swiss scientific journals. In Paris, the findings were made in the funds of the Ministry of Public Education (Ministère de l'Instruction publique) and various scientific orgaisations (Collège de France, École pratique des hautes études), stored in the French National Archive (Archives Nationales); in the Collège de France's Archive (the dossiers of M. Berthelot and É. Jungfleish); and in the Archives de l'Académie des sciences. All these findings served as materials for this book. They expand our knowledge about Luginin's interactions with his French colleagues, provide the information about the priorities and motivations of his collaboration, and indicate the appreciation of his teaching and scientific activities in France. The documents found in the Academy of Science's archive in France confirm a less-known fact from Luginin's biography, concerned with his being nominated as a candidate for the Academy's Foreign Corresponding Member in lieu of D.I. Mendeleyev who died in 1907.

The discovery of completely unknown Luginin's abundant correspondence (more than 100 letters!) with a famous French chemist Berthelot whom Luginin regarded as his teacher came as a true revelation and a pleasant shock. The letters were discovered in three locations: at the Manuscript Department of the Institute of France's Library (Bibliothèque de l'Institut de France. Le fonds des manuscrits), in Bethelot's descendant Mr. D. Langlois-Berthelot's private archive, and in a collection that belonged to Mme L. Guerby, Luginin's great-granddaughter (more than 70 letters). The fact of the collaboration between the two scientists is widely known. These letters enable us to witness the intimate side of their interaction, namely the objectives of their joint efforts, their respective roles, the sharing of the interim results of their studies and their ideas concerning the elaboration of methodologies and the improvement of equipment, the scientific publications. We learn what Berthelot appreciated in the work of his Russian colleague: it was both the strict accuracy and validity of his results, ensured by the experimenter's masterful deftness and endless patience - the qualities required to conduct the extremely difficult and labour-intensive experiments in thermochemistry. The letters reveal these scientists' personal qualities such as straightforwardness, generosity, goodness, scrupulousness with regard to author's rights, etc. It explains why, among the host of Berthelot's disciples, Luginin became of his favourites. These letters reflect not only the scientific but also a purely human side of relationship between these two persons in the different periods of their acquaintanceship of more than forty years, the evolution of their relationship from business partnership in the beginning to a devoted friendship warmed with the feelings of profound personal sympathy.

The book is organised by problems and in chronological order. It comprises the introduction, four large parts, the conclusion, a synchronistic table of Luginin's life and creativity, the bibliography of his works, the addenda (selected archive materials), and the name index.        

The first and the second parts provide the description of Luginin's life, beginning with his childhood and adolescence and ending with his last days. It is preceded by Luginin's genealogy beginning with the 18^th century. The genealogical table of the Luginin family was checked against the primary sources. The period of Luginin's life covered in the first part of the book includes his childhood spent in Moscow, his education in the Mikhailovsky Artillery School in Petersburg and participation in the Crimean War, successful beginning of his military career and a sudden abandonment of this career.   

A lengthy travel abroad that lasted (with several breaks) from 1859 through 1867 played an important role in Luginin's development as a scientist and public figure. During these years he received advanced technical training at the Karlsruhe Polytechnikum, studied the history of economic thought, attended the lectures in natural sciences at the Universität Heidelberg. His interest in science brought him to the laboratories of the renowned European chemists and physical chemists R. Bunsen, A. Würtz, and H.V. Regnault where he learned the methodologies for setting up and conducing the chemical and physicochemical experiments, familiarised himself with the specialised equipment. His first scientific works stemmed from this experience and his collaboration with Berthelot began. It was at that time that he met A.I. Herzen and those around him,, became fascinated with the radical ideas, and participated in the Russian emigration's underground activities. The suppression of the Polish Rebellion in 1863 put at end to Luginin's revolutionary aspirations; he abandoned his radical ideas even before his return to Russia in the autumn of 1867. With this ends the first part of Luginin's life story.      

The second part of Luginin's biography is devoted to the description of the mature Luginin's life. The diversity of his interests and duties made his life extremely mobile and demanded him to be present in different places almost simultaneously. He would often hurry from Paris to his Kostroma estates in the North-East of the European part of Russia, where he had to handle the matters of running his estates and developing the infrastructure (schools, hospitals, mutual benefit society, etc.) for the local peasants, and attend the meetings of the Vetluga district council (Zemstvo) of which he was a member. He had to travel thousands of kilometers by train and then, in winter, by horse carriage along the woodcutting road or, in summer, by the carriage and by steamboat too. The interests of science and his family (his French wife), his concerns for the health of his relatives drew him to the West. In Russia, he was held by his family ties, the matters associated with the cooperative society and management of his large forest estate, and later - with teaching at Moscow University. During that period, Luginin's life proceeded in the different geographical locations - however even in the most stable time of his life he was constantly travelling. In the 1870s - early 1880s, his activities were mostly confined to Petersburg and Paris. In the 1880s, he settled down in Paris, making regular trips to the Kostroma Guberniya. This is followed by the Moscow period (1890s- early 1900s). The last years of his life (1907-1911) Luginin spent in Paris and Switzerland. And till his last days he never stopped thinking about going to Russia. We have already outlined the scope of Luginin's activities. This, however, is only a rough outline. In addition to that, there were trips abroad, his brief participation in the defence of Paris (in 1870) during the Franco-Prussian War, wolf and bear hunting, attending the exhibitions and going to theatres, socialising with many people who included not only the scientists and cooperators but also the artists, sculptors, antique dealers, and booksellers. Luginin was very interested in arts and books.          

The third part of the book tells about Luginin's activities such as his participation in the cooperative and local self-government (Zemstvo) movement, and his research and teaching activities. It is important to remember that, together with his brother, Luginin was one of the pioneers in the Russian cooperative movement. Having thoroughly studied the Western cooperatives' experience, the brothers developed a charter for the loan and savings partnership in the village of Rozhdestvenskoye that was appropriate for the local situation. This charter proved to be so effective that it became a model charter for the new cooperatives, to be used as such for many years. In his joint publications with the theoreticians of cooperative movement A.V. Yakovlev and N.P. Kolyupanov, Luginin proposed to expand the experience of cooperative movement onto the entire Russia. According to the Luginins, the long-term objective of cooperation was to create a tier of self-sustaining small producers, free from the tyranny of officials and the greediness of moneylenders and contractors. Luginin's works devoted to the cooperation are still being quoted in the Russian economic literature.       

The same goals were pursued in the activities of the two generations of the Luginin family - the father Fedor Nikolayevich and the brothers Vladimir and Svyatoslav (who, unfortunately, died young) - related o the district council. Having set up the peasants' schools and hospitals on their estates, the Luginins took care to extend this experience onto the whole Vetluga District (Vetluga Uyezd). Vladimir Fedorovich initiatives included the implementation of the new forms of education in the village school, industrial craft shops, and teamwork production (cheese-making, tar-disstillery). Luginin was committed to the improvement of agricultural production by the local peasantry through the optimal grass growing, the use of elite seeds and new agricultural equipment. In this sense, the organisation of works on the Luginins' estate became a model to be followed not only locally but also across the entire Russia.  

Luginin's scientific biography reflects his participation in the development of thermochemistry. He contributed to the development and elaboration of methodologies on the determination of the heat of combustion and the heat of vaporisation as well as the thermal capacity of inorganic substances. He created and improved special equipment intended for these purposes. His efforts in this field were particularly ingenious and devices created by him were innovative and elegant. Like in the sphere of cooperative movement, he became a pioneer in this sphere in his own country: many laboratories of that time began to use his inventions for thermochemical measurements. Luginin himself conducted a great number of perfectly accurate experimental studies to determine a number of physicochemical properties of individual substances and chemical processes. The data obtained by Luginin could be found in many physicochemical handbooks and critical tables as well as in the textbooks of that time. Luginin played an important role in the creation of a model thermochemical laboratory in Moscow University, the development of practical guides for the students, and the training of specialists in this field. He had passed on to his students his own commitment to experiment.       

The fourth part describes the people who surrounded Luginin. Among his numerous acquaintances, some left an important mark on our hero's biography. The sustainability of contacts depended on the closeness of interests, psychological compatibility, and the similarity of cultural attitudes rather than on the geographical distance or proximity. Thus, Luginin was offended by the attitude of some of his colleagues who regarded his scientific efforts as a rich landowner's whim. In our opinion, this was the reason for his rather ephemeral acquaintanceship with Mendeleyev the beginning of which appeared so promising.   

Those who most often found themselves in Luginin's circle of closest contacts were the natural scientists such as the chemists I.A. Kablukov (Moscow), A. Naquet, E. Grimaux, M. Berthelot, É. Jungfleisch, and G. Dupont (Paris), and the physical chemists H.V. Regnault (Paris) and P.-A. Guye (Geneve).  His acquaintances included the artillery scientists S.A. Usov, N.P. Fedorov, and S.V. Panpushko in Petersburg, the chemist and crystallographer G.N. Wyrouboff in Paris, and the plant physiologist K.A. Timiryazev in Moscow. His fascination with the Russian liberation movement (the emancipation of the Russian peasants, the struggle against autocracy, etc.) brought him together for a short time with a woman writer E.V. Salias de Tournemir and a thinker and ideologist of the Narodnik (populism) movement P.L. Lavrov. Luginin's participation in the cooperative movement led to his close and trusting relationship with its prominent figures A.V. Yakovlev, E.V. de Roberty, Prince A.I. Vasil'chikov, and N.P. Kolyupanov. His friendship with S.A. Usov, G.N. Wyrouboff, M. Berthelot and N.P. Kolyupanov could only be separated by death. 

In the concluding part we tried to depict the current situation with Luginin's scientific and ideological heritage. His scientific library donated to Moscow University remains whole and still retains its importance as a valuable source for the history of the Russian and foreign scientific thought. The equipment from Luginin's thermochemical laboratory plays a similar role as an artifact of the history of science. Before becoming a museum item, Luginin's gift to the university had faithfully served several generations of researchers. Luginin's activities related to the cooperation and Zemstvo left practically no material traces.  The Rozhdestvensky Cooperative disintegrated after the Soviet regime came to power. The time has wiped off the face of the earth the buildings of the people's schools and hospitals built and taken care of by the father of Vladimir Fedorovich. The manor house was burnt down and only the huge park remains to remind of the past grandeur but it has declined and is deteriorating. The popular memory, however, is still alive. The local population sees the Luginins as the true patriots who did quite a lot for the Vetluga land's prosperity and are proud of them.  The Luginin readings are being regularly held in Sharia (the district centre) with the participation of the local intelligentsia and youth. The local history museums in Sharia and Vetluga store the memorial items from the Luginin's manor and the photographs. The fact that the modern cooperators draw upon the experience of the Rozhdestvensky Partnership inspires hope that the Luginins' enduring efforts to improve the economic situation of the peasants would not go in vain and this tradition will be continued.

The addendum contains the body of documents from the Moscow, Paris and Amsterdam archives. It includes the following: (1) Luginin's correspondence with Berthelot (the fragments of three above-mentioned collections: Bibliothèque de l'Institut de France. Les fonds de manuscrits, D.Langlois-Berthelot's private archives and Mme L.Guerby's private collection); (2) Luginin's correspondence with Kablukov, his disciple and professor of Moscow University (ARAN); (3) the correspondence of Luginin's family members - his daughter Maria Volkonsky and his wife Marta Petrovna - with Kablukov (ARAN, Archive of the Moscow State University's Library); (4) materials related to Luginin's sociopolitical activities in the 1860s (GARF); (5) the description of Luginin as a scientist, given by a famous physical chemist V.V.Sventoslavsky (Wojciech Świętosławski) who had worked in Luginin's laboratory in Moscow University (ARAN); (6) personal documents from various archives: Archives Nationales, Archivesde l'Académie des sciences (Paris), IISH (Amsterdam), ARAN (Moscow). The book is richly illustrated with graphic materials (most of which were also taken from various archives) to reflect the main areas of V.F. Luginin's activities and help to reconstruct the historical, social, and scientific environment in which the scientist had lived and worked.     

Acknowledgments

The present work was carried out with the financial support of Fondation Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, which allowed one of the authors of this paper to get acquainted with materials relating to the activity of W.F. Louguinine in France collected in a number of both state archives of Paris and private ones. We are grateful for assistance the administrator of FMSH,  Alain d'Iribarne and members of its staff,  Dominique Richard and Sonia Colpart. As for European scholars we owe to many of them for support and help in many ways. We are truly grateful to

Mme Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent and Mme Natalie Pigeard-Micault; to members of Club d'histoire de la chimie (Société Française de Chimie) - Mme Danielle Fauque, Mme Laurence Lestel, Mme Josette Fournier, Mme Сéсile Carret, Mr. Henrie Tachoire. Our debts of gratitude to all archivists which were invariably helpful: Mme Florence Greffe and Mme Christiane Pavel (Archives de l'Académie des Sciences), Mme Maury (Archives du Collège de France), Mme Dominique Torrione-Vouilloz (Les archives de l'Université de Genève). Another archives and libraries whose collections supported this work included Archives of IISH (Amsterdam), Bibliothèque Nationalede France, Bibliothèque FMSH,  Archives de Société Française de Chimie and Archives Nationales in Paris, the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek in Munich..Our appreciation to  Mr. Daniel Langlois- Berthelot for permission to print correspondence ofBerthelot-Luginin from  the family archive. Our heartfelt thanks, of course, to V.F. Luginin's descendants-  Mme Livia Guerby  and Mr. Alexandre Wolkonsky.

[1] Соловьев Ю.И., Старосельский П.И. Владимир Федорович Лугинин. 1834-1911. М.: Изд-во АН СССР, 1963 [SolovievYu.I, Starosel'skiiP.I.VladimirFedorovichLuginin. 1834-1911. M.: Izd-vo AN SSSR, 1963].